By Mark 'Crowley' Russell

Orcas – also known as killer whales – have been documented preying on great white sharks in South Africa for several years. Now, DNA evidence taken from a great white carcass has shown the behaviour has also occurred in Australian waters.

Great white predation by orcas was most notably brought to the world’s attention in 2017, when a spate of great white deaths was attributed to a pair of local orcas that had been nicknamed ‘Port’ and ‘Starboard’.

Their presence was enough to scare away the local population of great white sharks, and the behaviour has been observed several times since, including a sighting in March 2024 when Starboard killed a great white and ‘surgically removed’ its nutrient-rich liver in under a minute.

The behaviour has been spotted sporadically off the coast of California, and orcas have also been observed hunting whale sharks and extracting their livers in the Gulf of California off the coast of Mexico.

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The Australian findings are based on the recovery of a great white carcass that was washed ashore in October 2023, following reports that orcas had been spotted hunting a large, but unidentified, item of prey in the area.

The shark’s wounds appeared consistent with bite marks found in the South African great white carcasses, and the liver and other internal organs were missing.

Swabs taken from the bites were analysed and found to contain orca DNA, which, together with the type of wound indicated that the shark had met a similar fate as those in South Africa.

There are at least two distinct populations of orcas present in waters around Australia, however, due to the limited amount of genetic material available from the samples, the scientists were unable to identify an individual animal, or which population it may have come from.

Nevertheless, the forensic analysis of the shark’s carcass indicated that the presence of the orca’s DNA was not accidental.

‘Multiple lines of evidence point to the presence of killer whale DNA being the result of a true predation event and not an artefact of contamination from the marine environment,’ wrote the study’s authors.

‘These results provide confirmed evidence of killer whale predation on white sharks in Australia and the likely selective consumption of the liver, suggesting predations of this nature are more globally prevalent than currently assumed.’

The complete paper, ‘Genetic Evidence of Killer Whale Predation on White Sharks in Australia’ by Isabella M M Reeves et al, is published in the online journal Ecology and Evolution.

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A newly published report by the China Cetacean Alliance (CCA) – a coalition of international and Chinese animal welfare organizations – has found that China has overtaken the United States as the holder of the highest number of captive orcas.

The CCA’s report Ocean Theme Parks: China’s Growing Captive Cetacean Industry (2019-2024), has revealed that there are now 22 orcas (also known as killer whales) in the country, most of which are on public display with ‘minimal welfare safeguards’.

Moreover, Chinese theme parks now house an estimated 1,307 cetaceans from a total of 15 different species, including the world’s largest number of captive bottlenose dolphins and beluga whales, totalling more than 730 and 145 animals respectively.

While much of the world is transitioning away from captive cetacean displays, with many Western tour operators now refusing to market attractions that involve them, China is building more.

As of July 2024, CCA reports that 101 captive cetacean facilities were operating in China, with an additional 11 under construction – more than double the number documented in the CCA’s 2015 report. Five new establishments have opened in the last five years alone.

There are currently 18 captive orcas held in the US at the three SeaWorld parks. The displays are now marketed as educational encounters rather than aquatic circus shows; no new animals are captured for display purposes and the orca breeding programmes ended in 2016.

In sharp contrast, China has imported 15 orcas from the Russian Sea of Okhotsk, and the other seven were born in captivity. Most of the orcas were only put on display in 2023, at a brand new facility called Chimelong Spaceship based in Hengqin Island, Zhuhai, in the province of Guangdong.

According to the report, since Russia banned the capture of orcas and belugas for entertainment in 2018, China has increasingly focused on captive breeding programmes and importing animals from Japan to meet the demand for the new theme parks.

‘China is the market for wild-caught cetaceans, which has harmed its international reputation, destabilized free-ranging populations, and resulted in an unknown number of animal deaths,’ said Dr Naomi Rose, senior scientist in marine mammal biology at the Animal Welfare Institute, which is a founding member of CCA.

‘The Chinese ocean theme park industry is incapable of meeting the complex physical and behavioural needs of cetaceans,’ said Rose, who visited China in January 2024 to observe orcas living in facilities there.

‘An increasing number of facilities offer visitors swim- or dive-with-cetacean experiences, putting the public at risk (as evidenced by the growing number of reported injuries), while failing to provide meaningful conservation information. Moreover, many animals are suffering from publicly documented trainer abuse and lack of specialized veterinary care.’

Detailed information on the status of the captive animals inside China’s ocean theme parks is difficult to obtain, as there is no publicly available source of information.

CCA’s report, however, cites several troubling deaths, including those of two critically endangered Yangtze finless porpoises.

Additionally, the number of wild-caught cetaceans registered as imported to China in the database of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) does not match export records from the originating countries, including Japan.

According to the report, differences in the import and export data total more than 380 individual animals, making it an ‘area of critical concern for the government and the industry’ as it ‘represents a potential violation of CITES regulations.’

CCA has recommended that China’s government launch independent investigations into CITES import data and captive cetacean welfare, while also prohibiting close contact activities between visitors and cetaceans and preparing plans to phase out their display at ocean theme parks.

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By Mark 'Crowley' Russell

A new study analysing the behaviour of orcas (aka killer whales, Orcinus orca) in the Gulf of California suggests that a pod of the marine mammals has developed specialised techniques for hunting the world’s largest fish – whale sharks.

Some groups of orcas – the largest member of the dolphin family – are known to target sharks as prey, although usually smaller species. Two orcas in South African waters have made headlines in recent years for preying on great white sharks, but there have been no reported instances of orcas targeting whale sharks

Between 2018 and 2024 in the southern Gulf of California, however, a small pod of orcas was observed using a collaborative method of hunting and killing whale sharks in four separate events.

In each case, the orcas appeared to deliberately target the pelvic areas of the sharks, causing the shark to bleed to death and provide access to the its lipid-rich liver – a very similar behaviour to the orcas attacking great whites in South Africa.

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Leading the group of whale shark hunters is a large male named ‘Moctezuma’, who was involved in three of the four recorded incidents.

Although Moctezuma was not present in the fourth whale shark hunt, the females that carried out the killing had been previously sighted with him, indicating the presence of a specialist shark-hunting pod.

The first event, recorded by tourists on 13 May 2018, showed an adult male orca estimated to be 8m in length – later identified as Moctezuma – approaching a juvenile whale shark around 5m in length that was still alive, but floating upside down at the surface.

The shark was clearly injured and struggling as Moctezuma continued to ram its underside before a ‘large slick of blood’ appeared at the surface. The orca eventually left and the whale shark sank out of sight.

Similar whale shark predation behaviours in which Monteczuma was involved were observed in June 2021 and April 2023, but in May 2024 four females and one juvenile orca were filmed hunting and killing a whale shark without the presence of the larger male.

In all four cases, the whale sharks were juveniles estimated to be between 5-6m in total length, and the orcas targeted the ventral (bottom) side of the shark towards the pelvic region.

Whale sharks, which average around 12-13m in length as adults – but have been recorded at over 18m – present a formidable target even for the powerful orcas.

Their aorta – the main vessel supplying blood from the heart throughout the body – is protected by a thick mass of muscle on the shark’s dorsal (upper) side, but is protected only by the shark’s hide on the ventral surface of its pelvic region – where it also passes through the shark’s liver.

The scientists believe that Moctezuma and his pod deliberately target juvenile whale sharks for a much easier kill – but with a body length comparable to that of the orcas themselves, a prey target rich in benefits.

What do orcas usually eat?

Orcas are found throughout the world’s oceans and are separated into different ‘types’, which differ in size, range, hunting and feeding behaviour.

‘Resident’ killer whales of the Pacific Ocean, for example, tend to live in large groups and hunt fish, whereas ‘North Atlantic Type 1’ orcas are smaller and will feed on both fish and mammals such as seals.

Orca types of the Pacific Ocean include smaller ‘offshore’ orcas and ‘transients’, which are larger and prey on marine mammals, as well as the Resident population.

A fourth ‘Eastern Tropical Pacific‘ (ETP) type has been proposed, which displays a more generalised diet including whales, dolphins, turtles and bony fish – but not sharks.

The Gulf of California’s (GoC) orcas to which Moctezuma’s pod belongs, however, have been observed preying on several different species of elasmobranch, including Munk’s pygmy devil rays and other species of mobula; bull sharks and blacktip sharks.

Studying orca behaviour is so difficult that it is impossible to determine whether or not Moctezuma’s pod has simply specialised in preying on elasmobranchs; whether it is a member of the more generalist ETP population which must now be redefined as a group that regularly consumes elasmobranchs; or whether it represents an entirely new ecotype of Pacific orca.

The researchers say that additional studies are required.

The complete study, ‘Killer whales (Orcinus orca) hunt, kill and consume the largest fish on Earth, the whale shark (Rhincodon typus)’, by F Pancaldi, KA Ayres, AJ Gallagher, J Moskito, KC Williamson, and JE Higuera Rivas is published under an Open Access license in Frontiers in Marine Science, 11, 1448254.

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Miami Seaquarium, the former home of the orca known as Lolita, who tragically died in 2023, has launched legal action against the former marine animal trainer who exposed the appalling conditions in which she was kept.

The lawsuit alleges that animal rights activist Phil Demers unlawfully published drone footage on social media showing the captivity and conditions of animals at Seaquarium.

Attorneys for Mr Demers say that his alleged conduct is protected by the First Amendment and that the case is a ‘Strategic Lawsuit Against Public Participation’, or SLAPP suit – a type of legal action intended to silence critics of an organisation by burdening them with legal costs until they abandon their campaign.

‘This lawsuit stems from Mr Demers having shared a third party’s photographs and videos documenting Lolita’s dire living conditions, and exercising his right to speak on a matter of public concern,’ said Chris Carraway, staff attorney at the Animal Activist Legal Defense Project (AALDP).

‘Constitutional protections for free speech do not allow Miami Seaquarium to sue Mr Demers for his criticism of its animal welfare practices, and these claims must be dismissed.’

According to a statement made by the AALDP, attorneys acting on behalf of Mr Demers have filed a motion seeking summary judgment of the claim made by Miami Seaquarium.

A summary judgment is a court order that brings a legal case to a quick close should a judge determine that there is no substantial reason for the case to be tried, or that it has little chance of success.

In filing their motion, Mr Demers’ legal team has argued that he had never illegally flown a drone over Miami Seaquarium, and that claims that he had done so should be dismissed.

The lawyers also note that in its lawsuit, Miami Seaquarium argues that drone flights such as the one exposing Lolita’s appalling conditions could disturb or harm the animals kept there, or injure a member of the public.

However, it was subsequently revealed that the Seaquarium itself regularly flies drones over its own facility, some of which come within 3m (10ft) of the ground and some of which involve performances with more than 100 drones.

The lawyers argue that no animal has been hurt and no members of the public have been injured or complained as a result, therefore rendering Miami Seaquarium’s claim invalid.

The footage Mr Demers originally shared on social media in 2023 – which has prompted the lawsuit against him – showed a tank housing the orca known as Lolita, also called Tokitae, and Sk’aliCh’elh-tenaut by the native Lummi people who considered her as family.

Lolita was captured in Puget Sound as an infant and had been in captivity for nearly 53 years, 43 of which were spent in solitude in a tank measuring just 80 x 35 feet (24.5 x 10.7m).

Public outrage over Mr Demers’ social media posts resulted in a concerted campaign to have Lolita re-homed in a coastal sanctuary close to her family, the L-pod group of Southern Resident Orcas in the Pacific Northwest.

Decades in captivity had taken a dire toll on her health, however, and after suffering for years with chronic infection, a lesion on her lungs and a ‘near-fatal’ bout of pneumonia in 2022, Lolita died on 18 August 2023, at the age of 57 years old. At the time of her death, she was the second-oldest orca in captivity.

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The rapid evisceration of a great white in Mossel Bay, South Africa, has changed the way science views great white shark predation by orcas

By Mark 'Crowley' Russell

The orca known as Starboard – part of a duo that has been terrorising South Africa’s great white sharks for the better part of a decade – has been witnessed killing and surgically removing a great white’s liver – by himself – in under two minutes. It is the first time a lone orca has been documented making the kill.

The two male orcas known as Port and Starboard – named for the way their dorsal fins flop in opposing directions – are thought to have been predating great whites in the area since 2015, with the first evidence published in 2017. It has previously been assumed that they stalked their prey together, or as part of a larger pack of six animals.

The latest observation, which took place in Mossel Bay in June 2023, was published in the African Journal of Marine Science, by a team led by Dr Alison Towner, of South Africa’s Rhodes University, who has been studying the predation of great whites in the region since Port and Starboard’s killing spree began.

‘Killer whales, or orcas, usually team up when they hunt, although they can hunt solitarily,’ said Towner ‘The unusual aspect was witnessing Starboard hunting a white shark alone and in a remarkably rapid timeframe.’

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The study reports that both Port and Starboard had been seen in the area around Mossel Bay on 18 June, with ‘a notable surface slick’ and ‘the distinct smell of shark liver’ present in the water – suggesting that the orcas had already killed at least one shark earlier that day.

Later in the afternoon, a juvenile great white, approximately 2.5m in length, was spotted at the surface. Starboard is reported to have appeared directly behind it, whereupon he ‘gripped the left pectoral fin of the shark and thrust forward with the shark several times before eventually eviscerating it.’

Witnesses to the incident report that following the evisceration, Starboard approached their boat displaying ‘a bloody piece of peach-coloured liver in its mouth.’

The observation has changed the way that the scientists regard the manner in which orcas hunt large sharks. While it is not uncommon for killer whales to hunt by themselves, it is the first time the behaviour has been associated with predation on great whites.

In 2019, Port was seen carrying the carcass of a bronze whaler in his mouth, hence the paper theorises that the age and size of the shark is important in determining the orcas’ hunting strategy – at just 2.5m in length and 100kg in weight, a juvenile great white shark presents little physical challenge to an adult male orca, which can reach more than 8.5m in length and weigh in at over five metric tonnes.

A fully grown female great white, however, can reach more than 5m and 2,000g in weight, and would present a more serious challenge to the orcas – although judging by the number of shark carcasses found over the years, apparently not much of one.

‘This sighting revealed evidence of solitary hunting by at least one killer whale, challenging conventional cooperative hunting behaviours known in the region, said Towner. ‘These are groundbreaking insights into the predatory behaviour of this species, and our findings significantly contribute to the global understanding of killer whale predation dynamics, enhancing knowledge of marine ecosystems and predator-prey relationships.’

Port and Starboard’s presence around the southern coast of South Africa has had a dramatic impact on great white populations in the area. False Bay, once a hotspot for great white cage diving has been almost devoid of the species since 2017, until a spate of sightings in November 2023 potentially signalled their return.

The pair have become something of local celebrities, and – judging by Starboard’s behaviour following the kill – have, perhaps, been enjoying the media attention.

‘The other fascinating thing about this observation was the killer whale came up with the liver in his mouth and went over to the boat [that witnessed the attack],’ said Towner in an interview with Sky News. ‘They got a real firsthand look at how that looks – it’s very Silence of the Lambs-ish!’

The paper, ‘Further insights into killer whales Orcinus orca preying on white sharks Carcharodon carcharias in South Africa’, by Alison Towner, et al, is published in The African Journal of Marine Science under an open access licence.

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